Groups and Teams, Building Effective Teams, Role of leadership in Team Building, Social Processes and Behavioral Issues, MS-21

Differentiate between groups and teams. Describe some basic guidelines for building effective teams and also explain the role of leadership in team building.

Teams
High Performance Teams (HPT)
• Shared goals and measures.
• Work is interdependent.
• Follows process and practices.
• Self managed.
• Maintains accountability.
• Established communication and meeting practices.
• Team members can perform multiple tasks (cross-training).
• Membership usually full time and co-located.
• Continuous improvement is ongoing.


Standing Teams (May also be referred to as Process Teams)
• Responsible for a process which supports the provision of certain products
or services.
• Shared goals and measures.
• Interdependent work.
• Established communication and meeting practices.
• Team members perform multiple tasks.
• Team Leader usually responsible for coordination.
• IS&T examples: Net OPS, Transmission Services, Help Desk.

Project Teams
•    Definitive ctart and end date, so the team completes its work and disbands.
•   Typically responsible for the planning, design, or development phase of an initiative.
•    Cross functional membership to provide varied skills and perspectives.
•    Goat and agreed upon deliverables.
•    Membership may be part time, ideally 20-50% time.
•    Clear set of practices and roles which may include team or project leader.
•    IS&T examples: Strategic Plan, Y2K, Enterprise Printing Discovery Team.

Process Improvement Teams
•   Time limited membership ~ usually part time.
•   Responsibility for mapping, analyzing and improving a discrete aspect of the work flow.
•   Cross functional members representing different steps or roles in the process.
•   Clear scope, deliverables, practices and roles.
•    IS&T examples: Software Licensing, Network Installation Coordination Improvement Team.

Advisory Teams
•   Responsible for oversight or providing support or guidance on a goal or project.
•   Membership usually part time, consisting of the sponsor for an initiative and various stakeholders; running concurrent with project team.
•   Clear roles and practices.

Staff Teams
• A type of standing team.
• May have planning, communication and coordination as primary purpose.
• Usually meet on regularly scheduled time frames with standing practices.
• Participants' efforts usually focused on their principal area of responsibility.
• As a team there is a need to set goals, coordinate tactical work, and
manage overlapping areas.
• IS&T examples: ITLT, Support TLs.

Groups Task Groups
•    Responsible for completing one task and then disbanding (i.e.; 3 or 4 people meet once to crunch and analyze the data collected).
•    May meet a limited number of times for a specific purpose.

Work Groups
•    Responsible for a span of work related to products and/or services.
•    Work is independent -- group members perform their work on their own.
•    Group leader or group member may pull together the parts to make a whole.
•    There may be group norms that are similar to team norms.

A team is developed wherever people have to work together to produce results. A team is capable of accomplishing much more than the sum total of what the members are capable of accomplishing individually. Team work is stimulating, it encourages members to put in leater effort and helps them to give their best. Generally people often misunderstand the terminology of Team or Group. Team cab be defined as "a group in which the individuals have a common aim and in which the jobs and skills of each member fit in with those of others. Let us take a very mechanical and static analogy, the jigsaw puzzle. Pieces fit in together without distortion and together produce some overall pattern. Thus Team/s in an organisation is/are based on the following characteristics:

•    Non-facilitative character of industrial organisation as far as team-work is concerned.
•   Groups do not necessarily become teams.
•   Objective commonality and similarity are not sufficient conditions for teams to emerge.
•   There  is a  universal ethos and  spirit underlying  the identities and uniqueness of the members of a group which alone make a team.
•   This universal spirit and ethos has to be evoked from within rather than
from without as it is something inherent with the members. Why do team arise in the first place? What are the kinds of tasks that require team work?

The source of a team lies in orte person doing a job that he discovers is too large for him to do is the (perspective) available.

Thus, it can be said that teams are groups of people who cooperate to carry out a joint task'. They may be assigned to different work roles, or be allowed to sort them out between themselves and change jobs, when they feel like it, e.g. crews of ships and aircraft, research teams, maintenance gangs and
groups of miners.

A high achieving team has all the properties of an ordinary team but in greater unison. Each member has both the expertise and the skill in performing functions needed for the task.

TEAM DEVELOPMENT
Team often grow form one person i.e., their leader who needs to shift the centre from himself to the cooperative efforts of the team. The test of a good team is whether or not its members can work as a team while they are apart, while at the same time contributing to sequence of activities.

In the context of team building, a leader knows his own strengths and weaknesses but also ensures that he compensates for what he lacks. Individuals  in the  team  should  have  such  strengths,  knowledge  and
experience which the leader does not possess. In a team it should be made sure that each individual knows and feels that his part of the task is making a significant contribution to the group's overall task.

It can be said that team work is no accident, it is the byproduct of good leadership.

Organisations are complex in their structure, systems, and people. Organisational excellence lies in the fit they achieve with an equally complex environment for achieved of goals and more'. The goals are consistently achieved through the presence of a leadership which is persistent, active and goal-oriented. The rewards for such leadership range  from  enlarged  markets,  high  assets  growth,  satisfied customers,
motivated  staff,  proc'jctive work climate,  and  enhanced quality of  life.

Leadership achieves excellence not (just) through organsiation but through people as individuals and as teams. The credit for having a happy and prosperous family is culturally attributed to the head of the family. Similarly, in a team the credit for its excellence goes to its leader. Team Building is an externally influenced exercise (taking the help of consultants) with temporary results, while Team Development is basically an internal process where results are more lasting and the leader helps in achieving this.

There are three problems when the entire team is dependent on its leader:
1) When they feel the leader is omnipotent, many followers fail to develop or utilise their full potential for contribution.
2) When such leaders leave, the team falls apart.
3) If such charismatic leader happens to make one or two glaring mistakes, then a sense of failed dependency pervades and the depressed followers or team members are very likely to turn against the leader and destroy the work he has so long symbolised.

The importance of choosing the right people as team members from the collection of possible members can hardly be over-emphasized. It is the first principle of team success.

There are certain conditions which must be met before effective team work can get into operation.
•   Goal setting as a result-oriented consultation
•   Shared information and trust
•   Clear understanding of each other's roles
•   Willingness to extend help whether asked for or not
•   Availability of adequate resources to each member
•   Members competence
•   Predominance of group interest over individual interest.

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
An effective team may be defined as one that achieves its specific aim in the most efficient way with the optimal utilisation of resources and in the shortest time. It is always in a position to take up more challenging tasks. The   true   test   of   team   effectiveness   depends   on   the   following characteristics:
•   The team's output is not an aggregation of individual inputs, but the result of collective projection.
•   Effective team adopt aggressive or defensive postures depending on the requirements of the situation.
•   Effective team make the best use of individual strengths and shield members from individual exposure.

The organisations that have worked effectively as a team have given special attention to the following factors:
•   Shared orientation
•   Organisational clarity
•   Team Composition
•   Communication and Commitment
•   Control information (feedback)
•    Reinforcement

It is the process of team building that makes people communicate effectively. If they communicate effectively they will plan effectively and in doing this, they will do the job right the first time. This will lead to more enthusiasm and increased productivity.

In the context of project management, the following points can be observed:

•   Commitment to the organisation is achieved by making employees aware
of the task and helping them in decisions, but firstly you have to get your
'hygiene' factors  right.  Commitment to  projects  is achieved  by the
organisational structure created for that project, or in other words, the team. It is the success and achievement on projects that enhances the commitment to the organization.
•   Tendering is the best stage at which to start team building and is done most successfully by using the team to prepare the proposal and make the presentation to the client.
•   The establishment of common goals on site is perhaps the most difficult area to address, and needs to be tackled at various levels. The manual workforce performs better if the work goes together well without a lot of re- work when they have good direction. The foreman and supervisors can perform more effectively if top management has taken the trouble to identify goals by involving them in some of the decision-making processes.
•   The team and management will perform more effectively if they have actually taken the trouble to get to know each other.
•   The Management's wish for control and the Team's need for autonomy are dependent upon the type of contract which gives the team scope for absolute control over the task or enough room for modification.

"Nobody is Perfect but a Team can be"

How to design and construct a team that simultaneously meets the requirements of both functional and team roles constitutes one of the most interesting aspects of team building. This is also one of the most critical factors determining the fortunes of management teams in industry. It is here that the Marks and Spencer experience of team work offers the most valuable insight.

In a significant sense the effectiveness of the M&S management teams lingers on the company's success in enabling most of its staff to have a relatively high degree of versatility in terms of functional as well as team roles. The M&S staff are to a considerable extent 'generalisf in both dimensions.

This makes it possible to combine and re-combine teams. This is perhaps another aspect of what Robert Keller has referred to as the 'inimitable magic of M&S. But if our analysis has been substantially correct, then may be it is not as mystic as the word 'magic' implies-though nonetheless 'inimitable'. The MiS investment in training and in creating the conditions for effective team work has been gigantic and amazingly long-term, but the payoff, as we have seen, is equally spectacular. In practical business terms it enables the company to acquire a unique competitive edge which goes a long way in explaining the enviable record of the company's success.

Team Builders work as catalysts to help management groups function better as open teams for a variety of reasons. The first objective in team building is to choose the right people in the light of the team's purpose.

TEAM FUNCTIONING
How does one keep a good team in its existing state of efficiency and effectiveness? In other words, how does one continue to make it function questions:
•   Why do we exist? What are we here for?
•   What and who would be affected if we went out of existence?
•   Are there more cost-effective ways of achieving our purpose and aim than having the current team?
•   Has there been a significant change in our mission as a team? Have we perceived, or been given, new responsibilities?
•   Are we still the right people to be tackling this work? Does it still need a team effort?

So, a manager's task is to maintain the standards of the team and raise them, and enhance the level of cooperation which in turn results in increased effectiveness.

The rat:onale for using team building techniques is becoming increasingly acceptable in organisations. Team building helps in sharing power, motivating employees, improving the quality of decisions and effectively managing the diversity. The technique was seen as having the potential for resolving a lot of problems and concerns. The more the team building focuses on 'behaviours' of group members and on organisational structure problems, the more successful such efforts will tend to be.

Team building activity is an important managerial tool because it provides a means for employees for participating in the decisions related to work objectives, and develop social support. Most people enjoy the interaction they have at work. Most of the studies show that team type jobs are better jobs because they encourage the sharing of information. In an ever changing and diverse society, it is important for every organisation to assess periodically their objectives, goals and methods. Team building activities provide a good support for making such assessments.

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Dimensions of Emotions, Emotional Intelligence, Importance of Emotions in Organisational Behaviour, Social Processes and Behavioral Issues, MS-21

Discuss various dimensions of emotions. What is emotional intelligence? Briefly discuss its importance in organisational behaviour in present Scenario, citing suitable examples.

Among the various attempts to understand and define emotion, a number of approaches can be identified. Darwin was perhaps the first to systematically identify and categorize a comprehensive range of emotions. He considered emotions to represent mechanisms for the adaptation and survival of the individual. And this evolutionary function of emotion is still acknowledged by some contemporary writers in the field of emotion. Another perspective is to consider emotions in behaviorist terms, seeing them essentially as states elicited by 'the delivery, omission, or termination of rewarding or punishing stimuli'. This approach is based on the principle of a simple pleasure/pain dichotomy, the various possible emotions representing seeking out or avoidance responses of an individual to the relevant positive or negative stimuli. A variation of this view is to focus primarily on emotions as motivators of behavior or transformations of dispositions to act. Within this framework, emotions are seen as instrumental in influencing the choices made by an individual in response to certain stimuli.

Emotion can also be regarded as some combination (with various emphases and sequences) of physiological, psychological and psychomotor components. James was an early proponent of this general approach, defining emotion in terms of the feeling of the 'bodily expressions' which follow the perception of an 'exciting facf. Other variations identify 'affective' and 'somatic' dimensions of emotion, 'experiential, behavioral and physiological' aspects, or 'corporeal' and 'cognitive' dimensions.

The above approaches all construct emotion as an essentially individual phenomenon. Emotions, however, can also be viewed in socio-cultural terms,

Goleman, for example, describing them as things we catch from each other 'as though they were some kind of social virus.' Denzin sees emotions as 'social acts involving interactions with self and interactions with others,' while for Averill an emotion is 'a transitory social role' which exists in both an interpersonal and a socio-cultural context.

The most recent developments in the understanding of emotion have been in the field of neurobiology. Rather than considering emotions as either psychological states or social phenomena, here they are studied in terms of their corresponding brain function. Clinical studies of the brain have identified emotion as being associated with complex biological processes in which neurological, biochemical, and sociocultural factors all play a part. Evidence from such studies shows how emotions 'retain a primacy that subtly pervades our mental life...hav[ing] a say on how the rest of the brain and cognition go about their business'.

As well as consideration of the purpose and function of emotions there is also the question of just what emotions exist. Darwin identified over thirty different emotions which he categorized into seven groups, clustering similar emotions together. James identified 'coarser (grief, fear, rage and love) and 'subtler emotions 'whose organic reverberation is less obvious and strong'. Similar, more recent classification systems include Damasio's 'primary' (happiness, sadness, anger, fear and disgust) and 'secondary' emotions. The latter are 'subtle variations' of the primary ones and include emotions such as euphoria, ecstasy, melancholy and wistfulness. Averill proposed a system of emotional classes or 'paradigms', 'impulsive', 'conflictive' and 'transcendental'. However, some emotion theorists, James and Averill included, consider that there are numerous, and perhaps endless, possibilities of emotions, these being determined to some extent by the socio-cultural context in which they occur.

These various constructions of emotion each provide particular insights into what is a complex phenomenon. Experiential knowing of emotion is part of the human condition. However, a clear, agreed upon definition seems to be not easily arrived at. As LeDoux said "everyone knows what [emotion] is until they are asked to define it." To the question what are emotions, LeDoux responds "there are many answers. Many of them surprisingly unclear and ill-defined".

The picture of emotions that emerges is diverse and multifaceted. This complexity makes the task of exploring the relationship between emotion and learning a difficult one. Baulking at that task, however, means limiting our understanding of what is happening in the teaching/learning process.

EMOTION AND COGNITION—OTHER POSSIBILITIES

While the oppositional relationship between emotion and cognition is deeply entrenched in our philosophical psyche, this is by no means the whole or only story. Different juxtapositions of cognition and emotion are evident in various teaching/learning theory frameworks. Some of these frameworks recognize the importance of emotion but position the affective domain as being somehow separate from, but nevertheless providing a basis for, functioning in the cognitive domain. In the tradition of Bloom's and Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia's taxonomies of cognitive and affective objectives, the existence of these two educationally relevant domains is acknowledged, but they are positioned as being distinct from each other. This underpinning model persists in studies such as McLeod's review of research into emotion and learning in mathematics, which identifies separate cognitive and affective domains. Shelton, too, writing of the importance of emotion in learning addresses the need to develop certain 'emotional competencies' before learning can proceed satisfactorily. Similarly, Postle talks of the importance of 'emotional competence' in relation to learning. In his terms, learning can be inhibited by emotional incompetence. He draws on Heron's model of multi-modal learning in which action, conceptual and imaginal learning alt depend on the capacity to leam at an emotional level. So, with this approach, emotion is relevant to learning in that it provides a base or substrate out of which healthy cognitive functioning can occur.

Another perspective sees emotion as being associated with cognition in some kind of parallel way. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences (including intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences) and Goleman's theory of emotional intelligence both construct emotion as analogous to the more traditional cognitive 'intelligence'. Emotion is somehow like cognition but operating in another, parallel, realm. 'Our emotions have a mind of their own, one which can hold views quite independently of our rational minds'. Within this framework, the Gray-LaViolette ECS (emotional/cognitive structures) theory uses a couple of metaphors (musical tones and woven fabric) to try to express a perceived relationship between emotion and cognition which is perhaps more intertwined than parallel. The ECS model, as with Gardner's and Goleman's theories, acknowledges the existence of emotion in relation to learning, but lacks a clear functional mechanism to connect the two.

So there has been an ongoing, if at times tentative, exploration of the relationship between emotion and cognition. This has led to a growing awareness that, far from being polar opposites, they are in fact inextricably connected. "Cognition is not as logical as it was once thought and emotions are not as illogical. In particular, the field of neurobiology alluded to earlier, has produced clinical evidence of connections between emotion and certain key cognitive processes. The work of Damasio for example has led him to propose that 'there is a particular region in the human brain where systems concerned with emotion/feeling, attention, and working memory interact so intimately that they constitute the source for the energy of both external action (movement) and internal action (thought animation, reasoning)'. This vital connection between emotion and the cognitive processes of attention, memory and decision-making is being recognized by a range of researchers and practitioners. And the practical implications of this are beginning to be felt. Stock, for example, found it 'disquieting' that he had spent so much time on developing a purely cognitive model of performance in organizations. He felt compelled by the research to revise his model, coming to acknowledge that 'all sensory input is processed through our emotional center first...before it is sent to be processed in our rational mind'. The centrality of emotion in many cognitive processes is now being acknowledged. They are seen by some as 'makTJng possible all creative thought, of being ways of disclosing the world for the person', of being 'a sort of biological thermostat [which] activates attention ... which then activates a rich set of problem-solving and response systems', of alerting us to specific kinds of problems, of serving as 'the mind's primary architect'. In fact, of depriving everything.

Despite the historical tradition which discounted the significance of emotion for any serious human endeavor, the 1980s in particular saw a burgeoning of interest in the place of emotion in a whole range of areas. 'Philosophical, anthropological, psychological, and social psychological conceptions of emotion are taking root in the human disciplines'. This interest was reflected in a strand of research into the significance of emotion for learning in the teaching/learning contexts of the time. But teaching and learning occurs now in a wide range of contexts, of particular significance being the incursion of the teaching/learning experience into the online environment. The frontier nature of online teaching and learning provides a stimulus to reconsider educational theory and practice and to question the assumptions underlying these. What is their validity? What is missing?

LEARNING ONLINE
It has been estimated that around 2 million students are now taking courses online from higher education institutions in the United States. Teaching and teaming online brings with it a whole new and largely unknown set of parameters which have to do with every aspect of being and learning in an online environment. Life online is not the same as life in the face to face world. Our very identity becomes something uncertain and ambiguous. The Internet is a mask of sorts. It hides the color of our skin, the shape and size of our body, its beauty and its blemishes, our age, our accents, our incomes and our fashion sense'. Teaching and learning online can be, in Mezirow's terms, the ultimate disorienting dilemma' where the familiar frameworks and markers of everyday life and learning no longer exist, or at least exist in unfamiliar forms. There has been considerable research into some aspects of this phenomenon, much of it having to do with the comparative effectiveness of different modes of teaching and learning, (including, specifically, the online mode).

As Russell's website indicates, hundreds of such studies show there to be no significant difference in students' performance with variation in the mode of teaching and learning. He argues the futility of carrying out such coarse grained research, maintaining that 'individual differences in learning styles dictate that technology will facilitate teaming for some, but will probably inhibit learning for others'. Other critiques of research in the area claim that the research focuses on the technology, resource efficiency, policy and pedagogy, with little exploration of the student experience and the implications of that. There has, however, been some research into the student experience, and even into the emotions associated with that experience. Kort, Reilly and Pfcard, for example, are attempting to develop a model of emotion related to various phases of learning. They have identified several axes specifying a range of emotional states and hope eventually to devise a computer-based system whereby both learner and teacher can recognize the student's emotional position in relation to learning.

There have also been studies of online learning in which emotion, while not being the major focus, has at least been acknowledged. Martinez has carried out research into online learning and devised a model of learning orientations which 'recognizes a dominant influence of emotions, intentions and social factors on how individuals leam differently.' Some of the research has identified some of the emotions experienced by students studying online. A study by Schaller and colleagues found that students experienced bewilderment and confusion as they attempted to navigate their way through the required learning site. Wegerif reported that students of the Open University were inhibited by feelings of fear and alienation as they experienced the exposure and the isolation that learning online can entail. Ng discovered that some students studying online reported considerable anxiety at communicating electronically, realizing that this form of communication required new social and communication skills. Hara and Kling set out specifically to investigate students' distress associated with studying a web based course. In their study, the expected problem of isolation did not emerge as an issue. They did however, identify considerable frustration experienced by students with the technical aspects of leaning online, with interpreting and following instructions and with managing the enormous amounts of email they were required to deal with. They questioned the apparently positive results of some surveys into online learning, suggesting that students' private revelations sometimes bore considerable contrast to their public responses in which they may be reluctant to express negative attitudes.

EMOTION AND E-LEARNING

While the studies cited above have indicated, at least in a peripheral way? that emotion is associated with learning online, there has been little exploration of the extent, nature and significance of this. The growing body of research and scholarship relating to emotion and learning generally indicates the significant part that emotion plays in learning. Models of learning online are still being developed. It is important that the opportunity not be lost to include the emotional dimension in this development, so that the theory and practice of teaching and learning online can be the richer for it and the more authentic. Research, qualitative and quantitative, large-scale and small should be carried out in a range of teaching and learning settings to inform more fully the theory and practice of teaching and learning online.

THE STUDY
This present study is informed by the author's experience of supporting the learning of students at university. It occurs in the context of an Australian university which is increasingly committed to providing courses online and attempts to explore the lived experience of some of those for whom this institutional commitment is an educational reality. It is also informed by the author's experiential and theoretical interest in the connection between emotion and learning and sits beside those studies which have begun to identify the emotions that students experience when learning online. As research into this area is still in an early stage of development, it is appropriate that basic groundwork be laid in terms of what is being established. This study attempts to open up a field of enquiry into the following questions:

• What emotions are associated with studying online?
• What are the teaching-learning contexts of these emotions?
• How do they relate to student learning?
•      What are the practical implications for teaching and learning online?

The study aimed to explore in qualitative terms the lived experience of students learning online particularly in relation to its emotional dimensions. Various,staff within the university offering courses online were contacted and their agreement sought in regard to inviting students from their courses to participate in the study. All contacted staff responded positively and the students enrolled in these courses were sent an email inviting them to participate in the study. Eleven students volunteered to take part and were subsequently interviewed. Bradley recommends that a sample size for qualitative research be considered adequate when 'the responses provide no new or conflicting information'. While each participant's story was singular, by the fcieventh interview, their stories had together formed a consistent pattern with general themes and individual variations but no new surprises. Qualitative research seeks understandings of specific situations and communicates that understanding through description'. That description is reported, as much as practicable, through the participants' own voices, although the researcher selects and interprets from what the participants have said. The distortion inherent in this selection and interpretation was countered in this study by both the transcripts of interviews and the subsequent research paper being verified by the participants. They were invited to check that their words and intentions had been faithfully represented and that the chosen extracts spoke truly of their experiences.

The participants were interviewed in person or by phone regarding their experience of studying online. They were asked particularly to comment on the emotions they had experienced in specific teaching/learning contexts associated with their online learning and the relevance of these to their learning. The interviews were around an hour in length and the interviewer identified particular aspects of the online learning experience and asked the students to reflect on these as well as assessing the experience overall. The aspects included such processes as logging on, following instructions, and accessing resources. The participants were also provided with a checklist of named emotions which the interviewer referred to in the latter part of the

Interview: This was used as a prompt to further identify the emotions associated with particular teaming experiences.

The interviews were recorded and transcribed and the transcriptions analyzed with a view to identifying the emotions reported and the contexts and consequences of those. All the participants spoke of a range of emotions both positive and negative which had been associated with, and had impacted on, their learning. Those which occurred most frequently in the interviews are discussed below. In each case the emotion was named by the participant spontaneously, in response to a probing statement or question by the interviewer (That must have been very frustrating for you), or by referral to the checklist (Can you tell me about any situations where you experienced any of the emotions on the list?).

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Conflict, Avoiding Conflict by effective communication, Social Process and Behavioural Issues, Ms-22

Conflict  can  be  avoided  by effective communication  and enhanced interpersonal relations. Discuss citing suitable examples.

Conflict between people is a fact of life - and it's not necessarily a bad thing. In fact, a relationship with frequent conflict may be healthier than one with no observable conflict. Conflicts occur at all levels of interaction - at work, among friends, within families and between relationship partners. When conflict occurs, the relationship may be weakened or strengthened. Thus, conflict is a critical event in the course of a relationship. Conflict can cause resentment, hostility and perhaps the ending of the relationship. If it is handled well, however, conflict can be productive - leading to deeper understanding, mutual respect and closeness. Whether a relationship is healthy or unhealthy depends not so much on the number of conflicts between participants, but on how the conflicts are resolved.

Sometimes people shy away from conflict, and the reasons for this are numerous. They may, for example, feel that their underlying anger may go out of control if they open the door to conflict. Thus, they may see conflict as an all-or-nothing situation (either they avoid it altogether or they end up in an all-out combative mode, regardless of the real severity of the conflict). Or they may find it difficult to face conflict because they feel inadequate in general or in the particular relationship. They may have difficulty in positively asserting their views and feelings. Children who grow up surrounded by destructive conflict may, as adults, determine never to participate in discord. In this situation, the person may never have learned that there are effective, adaptive ways to communicate in the face of conflict.

People adopt a number of different styles in facing conflict. First, it is common to see a person avoid or deny the existence of conflict. Unfortunately, in this case, the conflict lingers in the background during interaction between the participants and creates the potential for further tension and even more conflict. A second response style is that of one person getting mad and blaming the other person. This occurs when a person mistakenly equates conflict with anger. This stance does nothing to resolve the conflict and in fact only serves to increase the degree of friction between the two participants by amplifying defensiveness. A third way which some people use to resolve conflict is by using power and influence to win at the other's expense. They welcome conflict because it allows their competitive impulses to emerge, but they fail to understand that the conflict is not really resolved since the "loser" will continue to harbor resentment. Similarly, some people appear to compromise in resolving the conflict, but they subtly manipulate the other person in the process, and this, again, perpetuates the conflict between the two parties and compromises the trust between them. There are better ways to handle interpersonal conflict.

Healthy Approaches to Conflict Resolution

Conflicts run all the way from minor, unimportant differences to disputes which can threaten the existence of a relationship. Conflicts with a loved one or a long-term friend are, of course, different from negotiating with someone who does not care about your needs, like a stranger or a salesperson. However, there is an underlying principle that underscores all successful conflict resolution. That is, both parties must view their conflict as a problem to be solved mutually so that both parties have the feeling of winning - or at least finding a solution which is acceptable to both. Each person must participate actively in the resolution and make an effort and commitment to find answers which are as fair as possible to both. This is an easy principle to understand, but it is often difficult to put into practice.

We may get so caught up with our own immediate interests that we damage our relationships. If we disregard or minimize the position of the other person, if fear and power are used to win, or if we always have to get our own way, the other person will feel hurt and the relationship may be wounded. Similarly, if we always surrender just to avoid conflict, we give the message to the other person that it is acceptable to act self-serving at our expense and to be insensitive to our needs. Our feeling of self-worth suffers, resentment festers, and we feel poisoned in the relationship. Instead, it is healthier if both parties can remain open, honest, assertive and respectful of the other position. Mutual trust and respect, as well as a positive, constructive attitude, are fundamental necessities in relationships that matter.

Preventing Conflict
Most people have no interest in creating conflict with others. Most of us know enough about human behavior to distinguish between healthy communication and the words or actions that contribute to rocky relationships. It is in our interest to maintain relations which are smooth, flexible, and mutually enhancing. The problem occurs when we fail to use cooperative approaches consistently in our dealings with others. We seldom create conflict intentionally. We do it because we may not be aware of how our own behavior contributes to interpersonal problems. Sometimes we forget, or we are frustrated and annoyed, and sometimes we just have a bad day. At times we feel so exasperated that we focus on our own needs at the expense of others'. And then we find ourselves In conflict.

To prevent conflict from happening in the first place, it is important to identify the ways in which we contribute to the disagreement. One way of doing this is to identify a specific, recent conflicted situation, recall what you said, and then think specifically about how you could have used more effective language. Think about ways in which your communication could have set a more trustful tone or reduced defensiveness. Then, once you have identified your part in the conflict, such as blaming, practice working on that particular behavior for a day or a week. At the end of the time period, evaluate your progress. Did you succeed? In what situations did you not succeed? (While it may be the other person who created the conflict, you are the other half of the interaction and it is your own response that you have control over and can change.) Using Effective Communication Techniques to Reduce Conflict Once you find yourself in a conflicted situation with someone else, it is important to reduce the emotional charge from the situation so that you and the other person can deal with your differences on a rational level in resolving the conflict.

The Defusing Technique: The other person might be angry and may come to the situation armed with a number of arguments describing how you are to blame for his or her unhappiness. Your goal is to address the other's anger -and you do this by simply agreeing with the person. When you find some truth in the other point of view, it is difficult for the other person to maintain anger. For example, "I know that I said I would call you last night. You are absolutely right. I wish I could be more responsible sometimes." The accusation might be completely unreasonable from your viewpoint, but there is always some truth in what the other person says. At the very least, we need to acknowledge that individuals have different ways of seeing things. This does not mean that we have to compromise our own basic principles. We simply validate the other's stance so that we can move on to a healthier resolution of the conflict. This may be hard to do in a volatile situation, but a sign of individual strength and integrity is the ability to postpone our immediate reactions in order to achieve positive goals. Sometimes we have to "lose" in order, ultimately, to "win."


Empathy: Try to put yourself into the shoes of the other person. See the world through their eyes. Empathy is an important listening technique which gives the other feedback that he or she is being heard. There are two forms of empathy. Thought Empathy gives the message that you understand what the other is trying to say. You can do this in conversation by paraphrasing the words of the other person. For example, "I understand you to say that your trust in me has been broken." Feeling Empathy is your acknowledgment of how the other person probably feels. It is important never to attribute emotions which may not exist for the other person (such as, "You're confused with all your emotional upheaval right now"), but rather to indicate your perception of how the person must be feeling. For example, "I guess you probably feel pretty mad at me right now."

Exploration Ask gentle, probing questions about what the other person is thinking and feeling. Encourage the other to talk fully about what is on his or her mind. For example, "Are there any other thoughts that you want to share with me?"

Using "I" Statements: Take responsibility for your own thoughts rather than attributing motives to the other person. This decreases the chance that the other person will become defensive. For example, "I feel pretty upset that this thing has come between us." This statement is much more effective than saying, "You have made me feel very upset."

Stroking Find positive things to say about the other person, even if the other is angry with you. Show a respectful attitude. For example, "I genuinely respect you for having the courage to bring this problem to me. I admire you strength and your caring attitude."

A Rational Way of Resolving Conflicts

Here is a model that may help in resolving interpersonal conflicts.
Identify the Problem. Have a discussion to understand both sides of the problem. The goal at this initial stage is to identify what you want and to listen to what the other person wants. Define the things that you both agree on, as well as the ideas that have caused the disagreement. It is important to listen actively to what the other is saying, use "I" statements and avoid blame.

Come Up With Several Possible Solutions. This is the brainstorming phase. Drawing on the points that you both agree on and your shared goals, generate a list of as many ideas as you can for solving the problem, regardless of how feasible they might be. Aim toward quantity of ideas rather than quality during this phase, and let creativity be your guide.

Evaluate These Alternative Solutions. Now go through the list of alternative solutions to the problem, one by one. Consider the pros and cons of the remaining solutions until the list is narrowed down to one or two of the best ways of handling the problem. It is important for each person to be honest in this phase. The solutions might not be ideal for either person and may involve compromise.

Decide on the Best Solution. Select the solution that seems mutually acceptable, even if it is not perfect for either party. As long as it seems fair and there is a mutual commitment to work with the decision, the conflict has a chance for resolution.

Implement the Solution. It is important to agree on the details of what each party must do, who is responsible for implementing various parts of the agreement, and what to do in case the agreement starts to break down.

Continue to Evaluate the Solution. Conflict resolutions should be seen as works in progress. Make it a point to ask the other person from time to time how things are going. Something unexpected might have come up or some aspect of the problem may have been overlooked. Your decisions should be seen as open to revision, as long as the revisions are agreed upon mutually.

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Techniques of Behaviour Modification, Social and Behavioural Issues, MS-21

Explain various techniques of behaviour modification. Illustrate and evaluate the behaviour modification techniques that are being used by present organization or an organization you are familiar with. Briefly describe the organization you are referring to.

Behaviour modifications a system of objectively describing particular behaviours and attempting to change them with the use of environmental factors such as reinforcers and cues in order to decrease destructive behaviours and increase and develop useful skills in order to improve the quality of life for those concerned.

It is a person's behaviour, beneficial or unacceptable, that is the single most important factor which determines the way in which they are regarded, how their personal relationships develop, how they are helped or rejected, where they live and ultimately, how happy they are and how good their quality of life becomes.

Helping unacceptable behaviours to diminish or disappear and beneficial behaviours to develop and expand is something which concerns everyone and the techniques and approaches which enable us to achieve these ends need to be understood by all those in a caring relationship with others.
There are several reports in the literature dealing with behaviour, temperament and psychiatric problems in people with Down syndrome. Interpreting these data presents considerable difficulties because of the different systems of classification, types of measurement and definitions used.
An important issue in the consideration of human behaviour is that what appears to be identical behaviour may have different types of causal mechanisms; it is known for example^that aggressive behaviours may have widely different mechanisms including many different environmental factors as well as biochemical, genetic and other variables. Attempts to 'force' behaviour in to causal systems are often based on guess-work and frequently lead to misunderstanding these behaviours. In addition, many behaviours are ill-understood and better dealt with on a pragmatic and / or experimental basis.
One of the advantages of the Behaviour modification approach is that it does not commit itself to causal mechanisms in advance and always keeps open the option that particular behaviours may be changed even without having a full understanding of all their mechanisms. Such an approach also means that some understanding of the behaviours involved may be obtained as a result of the behavioural procedure itself.

Approaches to changing human behaviour are very varied but it is the appropriate use of Behaviour modification that has not only produced the most dramatic effects but has also improved relationships between the various carers involved.

While most of the principles of behaviour modification seem obvious and sensible, some are not, and the practical problems of actually carrying out behaviour programmes may be the most difficult problem of all since this necessitates the co-operation, communication, trust and mutual support of everyone involved.

It is, therefore, essential that the formal and systematic approach and understanding of the basic principles of Behaviour modification be established in order to carry out an effective behaviour modification programme. 'Structural' issues

In addition to embarking on a behaviour modification programme it is important to ensure that other factors which may affect behaviour are identified and dealt with as effectively as possible. Some of the areas which need to be examined are as follows:-

1. Physical health
Many physical disorders can be responsible for perpetuating unacceptable behaviour and / or making them more difficult to change. Some of the more common are:
a) chronic pain from any cause; for example, infection of the ears, urine, teeth and chest;
b) disorders affecting vision;
c) disorders affecting hearing;
d) epilepsy;
e) disorders of thyroid function.

2. Communication problems
Any such disorders, especially those in which the ability to express oneself is impaired, are frequently associated with behaviour problems.

3. Psychiatric disorders
Any psychiatric disorder can be associated with difficult behaviours and may also interfere with the learning of new skills. Such disorders need to be properly diagnosed and effectively treated.

4. Personal relationships
Hostility, anger and lack of support from carers, friends and relatives may have profound effects on behaviour and unless these factors are dealt with, behaviour modification programmes often fail. The departure, illness or death of important carers may also have serious effects on behaviour as well as
feelings.

5. Frustration
Any factors causing frustration, especially when associated with a lack of help in dealing with them will also interfere with behaviour modification programmes and such problems need to be dealt with as well as possible. Problem behaviours may remain after the above factors have been addressed - mainly because of the following three factors:

1. Habituation
A behaviour which has been carried out for any length of time may become a habit Even if the original cause has been removed it may persist. Such habits need to be treated with behaviour modification techniques as separate problems

2. Inappropriate reinforcement
The 'encouragement' of inappropriate behaviours is probably the most common reason why these behaviours persist. This issue will be discussed in greater detail below.

3. Other environmental factors
If a person is unhappy, disturbed, afraid or bored it becomes much more difficult to deal with unacceptable behaviours, or indeed, to teach new behaviour. Such factors need examination and correction as far as possible. The vast majority of behavioural difficulties are entirely or predominantly psychological in the sense that they are learned behaviours and, therefore, amenable to behavioural approaches.

Of the several different approaches under the general heading of behaviour modification the most important strategies are those based under the rubric of Operant Conditioning. The principles underlying this are simple in theory, but, as always, more difficult to carry out in practice.

We live in a culture where causation is seen as something which happens first and produces a result later - for example a pinprick on the finger causes the hand to be drawn away. However, this logic does not normally apply to learned behaviours where the causal relationships are, at first sight, not so obvious and easy to understand; for example if asked why a person picks up a telephone most people would say that it is because the telephone rang. However, if there was no one to speak to at the other.end, we would soon tire of picking up the telephone when it rang. Clearly, it is because of the fact that something happens after the behaviour (someone talking) that makes us continue to carry out this particular behaviour. The implication of this little example is, therefore, that the most important cause in this type of learned behaviour i.e. (picking up the telephone) is the consequence, without which there is no point in picking up the telephone. This is the basic principle of Operant Conditioning i.e. it is the consequence, the result, the reward or reinforcement of the behaviour that is the crucial element.

The link between the behaviour and the immediate consequence is shown as a thicker line because it is the major determinant of this behaviour and it develops in to this major factor through a process of learning, which may take a shorter or longer period of time. This link is a conditioned reflex which can be made stronger, weaker or broken altogether.

The importance of this principle is that by appropriate use of reinforcers the preceding behaviour may be weakened or strengthened.

It is important to understand that reinforcers are defined by the effect they have on the preceding behaviour and not on whether we think they should be reinforcing or not.
For example if a mother said "the more I shout at him the more he does it" she is illustrating that shouting at her child is a reinforcer because it is increasing the preceding behaviour although she thinks that because shouting is unpleasant, it should stop this behaviour.

By far the commonest cause of difficult behaviours is reinforcing such behaviour - often without realising that this is what has been done. In crder to effectively take advantage of the behavioural approach the following procedure should be followed:-

1. Describe the target behaviour to be changed (increased or decreased).
2. It is important not to jump to conclusions about the cause of a behaviour because it is difficult to be sure about this and often different people will have different interpretations of the target behaviour. This results in difficulties when communicating about a behaviour and how to deal with it. For example, if a child is aggressive some people might think that he is 'naughty', some may think he is afraid, some that he is frustrated and others that he is enjoying this behaviour. Interpreting behaviours may produce confusion and even conflict in; the early stages of the behaviour
programme and should be avoided.

3. Once the behaviour is described it is then useful to observe it for a short time. This is in order to obtain some idea of its frequency and intensity.

The importance of such measurements,is that without such a baseline it will become difficult to follow up change! In behaviour - whether it is increasing or decreasing in frequency or whether it is not changing at all. It is of great importance to have some system of measurement since the
changes that take place after the behaviour programme has started gives information about the effect of this intervention and whether it should be changed in any way. Measurement is often neglected because it is thought to be too difficult to do. However, even fairly crude measurement, as long as it is recorded, is usually adequate.

During the baseline period it is also important to observe the occurrences which happen before and after the target programme. Such observations may offer the opportunity to make an informed guess about what the reinforcers as well as the cues might be - the so called ABC approach:

A = Antecedents,
B = Behaviour,
C = Consequences.

One should then be able to produce a programme in which the reinforcer could be manipulated to either increase or decrease the target behaviour. If it is desired to increase the target behaviour then the reinforcer should be applied immediately after this behaviour. If it is desired to eliminate this behaviour then the reinforcer should not be given at all.

The apparent cue may also give information about which factors tend to initiate or precipitate the behaviour and therefore give warnings about the behaviour starting. It may also be possible to manipulate such cues to help reduce the behaviour. It must be remembered that the 'real' cause of the
behaviour is the reinforcer. Once this perpetuating stage has been reached a written programme should be produced. This has a basically straightforward structure.

Everyone involved in the carrying out of the programme should have a copy of the programme and a system should be worked out to ensure that all the records can be graphed on a single piece of paper.
In this particular case there seemed to be no stimulus during the baseline period. The child was sitting quietly when he got up and started to bang his head. While he was banging his head, his mother went up to him and put a cushion between his head and the wall and tried to distract him. It was decided in this case to try to ignore the head banging since it was thought it was being reinforced by mother's attention. In this case the head banging got worse as is seen on the graph, but eventually it became less and less until it disappeared all together. Interpretation of the data.

If the target behaviour that the programme is meant to eliminate increases in frequency during the early stages of the programme it is usually evidence of the fact that:
1. The programme is having some effect on the behaviour - this means that the target behaviour can be effected by environmental factors and is, therefore, likely to have a large learned component and
2. Such an increase could mean that the unacceptable target behaviour is increasing 'in order to try harder to get the now absent reinforcer1.
Both of the outcomes are encouraging and suggest that the programme has been structured on the right lines and should be continued.

Some principles of behaviour therapy.
1. It is task orientated. The specific behaviour is analysed and the programme organised to change this particular behaviour.
2. Positive reinforcement is always part of the programme. This leads to positive attitudes and relationships and emphasises new good behaviours rather than concentrating over-much on negative behaviours
3. Separating the sin from the sinner. It is the behaviour that is disapproved of and not the individual. Positive relationships are always emphasised, for example, "I love you but it is the behaviour that we all (you included) are trying to eliminate".
4. Measurement matters. Without measuring the change in frequency of the target behaviour it becomes extremely difficult to judge progress and therefore to know whether it is necessary to change the programme or not.
5. Co-operation. Everyone involved must co-operate with each other and must adhere to the programme. If it is decided to change the programme this must be done co-operatively. It must be re-written and copies given to everyone concerned.
6. Consistency. Everyone must carry out the programme in the same way. If only one person does not carry out the programme correctly it may cause confusion in the subject and conflict among the carers - this is called sabotage. A simple programme well carried out is much better than a clever complicated programme which is badly carried out.
Behaviour modification does not interfere with any other kind of treatment and in most cases they reinforce each other i.e. they should both be used.
In order to change behaviour, programmes should be carried out more-or-less all the time and in all situations. They tend not to work very well if they are carried out only spasmodically - this is a common cause of failure of behaviour programmes.

Team work
Unless all the people carrying out the programme communicate with each other regularly and discuss the programme, the way in which it is being carried out and any other problems that have emerged, the programme may not be effective. Programmes need to be regularly reviewed and changed as necessary otherwise they will not be carried out with any degree of conviction.
Such communication is also beneficial for the carers since it creates opportunities for discussion of each others problems and it also creates opportunities for mutual support.
The proper use of behaviour modification can help to produce real and important changes in people as well as carers and, properly carried out, improves the'quality of life of both.

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Work ethics, Social and Behavioural Issues, MS-21

Discuss the significance of work ethics in an organization. Recall the situations in which you have faced ethical dilemma in taking decisions in your work place or a working place you are familiar with and describe how you resolved these dilemmas. Briefly describe the organization you are referring to.

A Code of Ethics forms the heart of an organisational ethics management programme, yet many Codes are ineffectual due to content and design problems, as well as inadequate presentation styles and techniques. Subsequently, a need arose in the market for a quality assurance process, an independent benchmark, allowing organisations to develop and implement world class Codes of Ethics. Structured around clear and objective standards, EthicSA has extensive experience in assisting organisations in the development of Codes of Ethics to comply with international best practises. The following list describes various types of benefits from managing ethics in the workplace.

• Attention to business ethics has substantially improved society
• Ethics programs help maintain a moral course in turbulent times
• Ethics programs cultivate strong teamwork and productivity
• Ethics programs support employee growth and meaning
• Ethics programs are an insurance policy -- they help ensure that policies are legal
• Ethics programs help avoid criminal acts 'of omission' and can lower fines
• Ethics- programs help manage values associated with quality management, strategic planning and diversity management — this benefit needs far more attention
• Ethics programs promote a strong public image
• Overall benefits of ethics programs
• Last - and most — formal attention to ethics in the workplace is the right thing to do
Developing an effective Code of Ethics is vital to the success of a Total Ethics Management Programme (TEMP). A successful Code of Ethics should comprise a well-worded aspirational document setting out your organisation's values, and a clear and concise compliance document containing relevant national legislation, industry regulation and organisational policies Reasons To Develop A Total Ethics Management Programme (TEMP)
• A TEMP can decrease violations of organisational policies.
• A TEMP can substantially minimise potential legal liabilities such as loss of licenses and permits, antitrust fines, and disbarment from state and provincial vendor lists.
• A TEMP is an excellent supplement to investor relation management.
• A TEMP can build, maintain and safeguard organisational reputation in a manner marketing cannot do.
• A TEMP can lower operating costs by reducing employee/member turnover and lowering maintenance costs due to careless actions, thereby helping to maintain customer satisfaction and trust.
• TEMPs have been found to improve employee/member morale loyalty and productivity.
• A TEMP helps leadership communicate their values to employees/members as well as the public.
• An organisation with a TEMP can gain a competitive advantage by being known as trustworthy and ethical.
• A TEMP increases the perception that the organisation is proactive toward resolving issues and making value-based decisions—thereby reducing the possibility of state oversight.
• A TEMP gives an organisation/industry a change to fight back against negative press.
• A TEMP is a medium to long-term investment. Examining the issue of ethics now can prevent costly difficulties in the future.
Other benefits include:
• Increased employee pride in and loyalty to the company;
• Increased customer satisfaction and loyalty;
• Increased community goodwill;
• Increased employee/member/worker productivity;
• Improved product or service quality;
• Less misconduct;
• Legal protection for the company; and
• And the list goes on!

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Group, Formal and Informal group, Importance of group values and norms, Characteristics of an effective group

What is group? Distinguish between formal and informal group. Explain the importance of group values and norms. What are the characteristics of an effective group? As a manager – how would you attempt to develop effective group relationships and performance with reference to your organisation or an organisation for are familiar with.


THE MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF GROUPS

Individuals seldom work in isolation form others. Groups are a characteristic of all social situations and almost everyone in an organisation will be a member of one or more groups. The working of groups and the influence they exert over their membership is an essential feature of human behaviour and of organisational performance. The manager must use groups in order to achieve a high standard of work and improve organisational effectiveness.

There are many possible ways of defining what a group means. The essential feature of a group is that its members regard themselves as belonging to the group. A group consists of a number of people who have:
• A common objective or task
• An awareness of group identity and ‘boundary’
• A minimum set of agreed values and norms which regulates their relatively exclusive mutual interaction.

Another useful definition defines the group in psychological terms as: any number of people who
1) Interact with one another
2) Are psychologically aware of one another
3) Perceive themselves to be a group.

Essential feature of work Organisation
Group are an essential feature of the work pattern of any Organisation. Members of a group must co-operate in order for work to be carried out, and managers themselves will work within these groups. People in groups influence each other in many ways and groups may develop their own hierarchies and leaders. Group pressures can have a major influence over the behaviour of individual members and their work performance. The activities of the group are associated with the process of leadership. The style of leadership adopted by the manager has an important influence on the behaviour of members of the group.

The classical approach to organisation and management tended to ignore the importance of group and the social factors at work. The ideas of people such as F.W. Taylor popularized the concept of the rabble hypothesis and the assumption that people carried out their work, and could be motivated, as solitary individuals unaffected by others.

The human relations approach, however, gave recognition to the work organisation as a social organisation and to the importance of the group, and group value and norms, in influencing behaviour are work. The power of group membership over individual behaviour and work performance was illustrated clearly in the famous Hawthorne experiments at the ‘Western Electric Company in America’.


Group value and norms

One experiment involved the observation of as group of 14 men working in the bank wiring room. It may be remembered that the men formed their own sub-groups or cliques, with natural leasers emerging with the consent of the members. Despite a financial incentive schemes where workers could receive more money for the more work they did, the group decided on 6000 units a day as a fair level of output. This was well below the level they were capable of producing. Group pressures on individual workers were stronger than financial incentives offered by management.

The group developed its own pattern of informal social relations and codes and practices (‘norms’) of what constituted proper group behaviour.
• Not to be a ‘rate buster’ – not to produce at too high a rate of output compared with other members or to exceed the production restriction of the group.
• Not to be a ‘chiseller’ – not to shirk production or to produce at too low rate of output compared with other members of the group.
• Not to be a ‘squealer’ – not to say anything to the supervisor or management which might be harmful to other members of the group.
• Not be ‘officious’ – people with authority over members of the group, for example inspectors, should not take advantage of their seniority or maintain a social distance from the group.

The group had their own system of sanctions including sarcasm, damaging completed work, hiding tools, playing tricks on the inspectors, and ostracizing those members who did not conform with the group norms. Threats of physical violence were also made, and the group developed a system of punishing offenders by ‘binging’ which involved striking someone a fairly hard blow on the upper part of the arm. This process of binging also become a recognised method of controlling conflict within the group.

Another finding of the bank wiring room experiment was that the group did not follow company policy on the reporting of production figures. It was company policy that each man’s output should be reported daily by the supervisor. However, the workers preferred to do their own reporting, and in order to remain in favour with the group the supervisor acquiesced to this procedure. On some days the men would actually produce more than they reported to ‘build up’ extra units for those days when they produced less than reported. Although actual production varied the group reported a relatively standard amount of output contrary to management instructions.

Socio – technical system

The system approach to organisation and management also gave recognition to the importance of groups in influencing behaviour at work. The concept of the organisation as socio – technical system is concerned with the interactions between the psychological and social factors, as well as structural and technical requirements. Again, it may be remembered that technological change in the coal-mining industry had brought about changes in the social grouping of the miners.

New methods of working disrupted the integration of small self-selecting groups of miners who worked together as independent teams. The change had undesirable social effects and as a result the new method did not prove as economically beneficial as it should have done with the new technology. The result was a ‘composite’ method of working with more responsibility taken by the team as a whole. The composite method proved to be not only more rewarding socially to the miners but also more efficient economically than the pervious new method of working.

Formal groups

Formal groups are created to achieve specific organisational objectives and are concerned with the co-ordination of work activities.

People are brought together on the basis of defined roles within the structure of the organisation. The nature of the tasks to be undertaken is a predominant feature of the formal groups. Goals are identified by management, and certain rules, relationships and norms of behaviour established.

Formal groups tend to be relatively permanent although there may be changes in actual membership. However, temporary formal groups may also be created by management for example, the use of project teams in a matrix organisation.

Formal work groups can be differentiated into team groups task groups and technological groups.
• Team groups – these are fairly autonomous groups with broad terms of reference and limited supervisions. The team designate the positions to be filled and the allocation of members, and instigate changes as necessary.
• Task groups – jobs are defined clearly and individuals assigned to specific positions. The groups has some flexibility over methods of work and the pace of work, but otherwise limited discretion. Examples could include many administrative or clerical workers.

• Technological groups – members have very limited autonomy to determiner change the operational activities. The pace of work is also likely to be controlled. Content and method of work are specified and individuals assigned to specific jobs. There is little scope for individual discretion, and often limited opportunities for interaction among members. A typical example is people working on assembly line operations.

Informal Groups

Within the formal structure of the organisation there will always be an informal structure. The formal structure of the organisation and system of role relationship, rule and procedures, will be augmented by interpretation and development at the informal level. Informal groups are based more on personal relationships and agreement of groups members than on defined role relationships. They serve to satisfy psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the tasks to be undertaken. Groups may devise ways of attempting to satisfy members affiliations and other social motivations which are lacing in the work situation, especially in industrial organisations.




The membership of informal groups can cut across the formal structure. They may comprise individuals form different parts of the organisations and/or from different levels of the organisation both vertically and diagonally as well as same horizontal level. An informal group could also be the same as the formal group, or it might comprise part only of the formal group.

The member of informal group may appoint their own leader who exercises authority by the consent of the members themselves. The informal leader may be chosen as the person who reflects the attitudes and values of the members helps to resolve conflict leads the groups in satisfying its goals or liaises with management or other people outside the groups. The informal leader may often change according to the particular situation facing the groups. Although not usually the case, it is possible for the informal leader to be the same person as the formal leader appointed officially by management.


Groups, there fore, help shape the work pattern of organisations and the attitudes and behaviour of members of their jobs. The formation and operation of work groups, and the behaviour of their members has an important significance for the manager. Likert, for example, has developed a theory of organisation based on work groups. In his discussion of group processes and organisational performance he concludes that: ‘Group forces are important not only in influencing the behaviour of individual work groups with regard to productivity, waste, absence and the like, they also affect the behaviour of entire organisations.’

Overlapping group membership
Likert suggests that organisations function best when members act not as individuals but as members of highly effective work groups. He proposes a structure based on overlapping group membership with a ‘Linking-pin’ process by which the superior of one group is a subordinate member of the next group. The superior is therefore the linking-pin between a group of subordinates and the next authority level group.

A structure of vertical overlapping groups helps to develop a committed team approach and would improve the flow the communication, co-ordination and decision-making.





Horizontal linking-pin
Likert also recognises the position of subordinates serving as horizontal linking-pins between different groups, such as functional or line work groups and product based work groups.

Likert recognises that sooner or latter the subordinate is likely to be caught in a conflict between membership of both groups and the provision of information for decision making. He suggests that both groups would need to be involved in group decision-making to resolve differences and that this is more likely to occur with system for management.



Organisation structure
Groups are formed as a consequence of the pattern of organisation structure and arrangements for the division of work, for example the grouping together of common activities into sections. Groups may result form the nature of technology employed and the way in which work is carried out, for example, the bringing together of a number of people to carry out a sequence of operations on an assembly line. Groups may also develop when a number of people of the same level or status within the organisation see themselves as a group, for exp, departmental heads of an industrial organisation, or chief officers of a local authority.

Groups are deliberately planned and created by management as part of the formal organisation structure. But groups will also arise form social processes and the informal organisation. The informal organisation arises form the interaction of people working within the organisation and the development of groups with their own relationships and norms of behaviours, irrespective of those defined within the formal structure. This leads to a major distinction between groups – formal and informal.

REASONS FOR FORMATION OF GROUPS

Individuals will form into groups, both formal and informal, for number of different reasons relating to both work performance and social processes.

• Certain tasks can be performed only through the combined efforts of number of individuals working together. The variety of experience and expertise among members of the group provide a synergetic effect which can be applied to the increasingly complex problems of modern organisations.
• Groups may encourage collusion between members in order to modify formal working arrangements more to their liking, for example by sharing or rotating unpopular tasks. Group membership therefore, provides the individual with opportunities for initiative and creativity.
• Groups provide companionship and a source of mutual understanding and support form colleagues. This can help in solving work problems, and also to mitigate against stressful or demanding working conditions.
• Membership of the group provides the individual with a sense of belonging. The groups provides a feeling of identity and the chance to acquire role recognition and status within the group.
• The group provides guidelines on generally acceptable behaviour. It helps to clarify ambiguous situations such as for example, the extent to which official rules and regulations are expected to be adhered to in practice, the rules of the game, and what is seen as the correct actual behaviour. the informal organisation may put pressure on group members to resist demands from management on such matters as, for example, higher output or changes in working methods. Groups allegiance can serve as a means of control over individual behaviour. The group may discipline individuals who contravene the norms of the group; for example, the process of ‘binging’ in the bank wiring room, mentioned above.
• The group may provide protection for its membership. Group members collaborate to protect their interests from outside pressures or threats.

Expectations of group membership

Individuals have varying expectations of the benefits from group membership. Groups are a potential source of motivation and of job satisfaction, and also a major determinant of effective organisational performance. It is important therefore that the manager understands the reasons for the formation of groups and is able to recognise likely advantageous or adverse consequences for the organisation.

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Dynamics of helping, the role of the helper, the role of receiver, Need of creating helping climate

Explain the dynamics of helping, the role of the helper and the receiver. Discuss the need of creating helping climate in you organisation or an organisation you re familiar with by examples. Briefly describe the organisation you are referring to.


Helping can be reactive or proactive. When help is given to someone who asks for help or is seen as needing help, this is reactive behaviour (responding to the need of the other person). On the other hand, if help is given because of the helper’s need to give (rather than because the receiver’s needs to receive), helping is proactive. This distinction has been very well made in the Indian ethos on the basis of the need of the receiver or of the giver. When the receiver’s need is dominant it is called Bhiksha (whether asking or giving help), but if the need of the giver is more important then it is called Daan (both while giving and receiving help). This distinction is not found in other cultures. This distinction is useful to indicate that giving help as a motive is aroused not only by other person or group’s needed help, but also the giver’s need. Moreover, the given has a higher status in Bhiksha, whereas in Dann the recipient has a higher status, and obliges the giver by accepting help. Factor analysis of helping behaviour has thrown up some interesting factors. Two factors are particularly significant. One planned versus spontaneous help. Planned help is based on detailed analysis and preparation of help to be given, to meet the needs of the recipient. Sopntaneous help is response to request received or the signals given by individuals or groups in urgent need of help. Crisis is a good example of spontaneous help, there is no time for detailed planning of help.
The second factor is giving versus doing. Helping can be either in terms of giving material help, by parting away with some material possession. One passes on material money to other group or person. Doing requires much more initiative and effort involving collaborative relationship.

THE HELPING CLIMATE :

Helping relationship involves two parties, the helper and the receiver. Four processes are involved in this relationship: help giving, help receiving (what is given by the helper), help seeking (actively asking for help), and help reciprocation (mutual helping relationship). Helping relationship operates in a context (situation), so, the situational variables are also relevant.

Studies on altruism and prosocial behaviour are intimately related to helping. Explanation of the motive to help has been made in terms of altruism .
In the literature the terms helper, donor and agent have been used for one who gives help; recipient, receiver, helper, and client have been used for one to whom help is given. In the Western literature helping process has been considered only from the point of view of the need of the recipient.

Helping process involves some values underlying relationship between the helper and the receiver.

The central issue in a helping process relates to the values of the helper. The helping behaviour and strategies flow out of the basic stand he takes in relation to the receiver. Figure gives in summary the dynamics of the helping process in value terms. The helper should ask himself/herself what values he/she holds and with what consequences.
Okun has suggested that the following set of images of people is essential for effective helping process.


1) People are responsible and capable of making their own choices and decisions.
2) People are controlled to certain extent by their environment, but they are able to direct their lives more than they restricted options due to environmental variables or inherent biological or personality predisposition’s.
3) Behaviors are purposive and goal directed. People are continuously striving towards meeting their own needs, ranging from basic physiological needs to abstract self-actualization (fulfilling physiological, psychological and aesthetic needs).
4) People want to feel good about themselves and continuously need positive confirmation of their own self-worth from significant others. They want to feel and behave congruently, to reduce dissonance between internal and external realities.
5) People are capable of learning new behaviours and unlearning existing behaviours and they are subject to environmental and internal consequences of their behaviours, which in turn serve as reinforcements. They strive for reinforcements that are meaningful and congruent with their personal values and belief system.
6) People’s personal problems may arise from unfinished business (un-resolved conflicts) stemming from the past (concerning events and relationships) and, although some exploration of causation may be beneficial in some cases, most problems can be worked through by focusing on the here and now, on what choices the person has now. Problems are also caused by incongruencies between internal (how you see things inside) and external (how you see things outside) perceptions in the present.
7) Many problems experienced by people today are societal or systemic rather than personal or interpersonal. People are capable of learning to effect choices and changes within the system as well as from without.



In effective helping relationships, individual receiving help is able to:
• See new possibilities
• Notice things about oneself that one was not aware of
• Able to unfreeze oneself
• Face up to the reality of the situation or face up to oneself
• Open the doors for new experiences
• Develop security and courage to deal with challenges
• Understand people events and situations better
• Work out the consequences of one’s actions
• Piece together different things about oneself and understand why one acts or why one sees things the way one does.

The Receiver

By asking for help, the receiver places himself/herself in a weaker position. If the helper places himself in the stronger position of a “given” the relationship may degenerate into rebellion or passivity by the client or rejection of the receiver by the helper. Secondly, if the receiver and the helper are excessively concerned with intimacy, it can produce pressure toward conformity and mutual sympathy which may cause the helper to lose his/her perspective on the client’s problem and the client to lose his/her respect for the helper’s expertise. Thirdly, we have already noted that if helper’s concern for influencing is too high, the client will not be motivated to receive help. Finally, the self image and attitude of the receiver is also important. The client must see himself/herself as capable of improvement. If this is not so, then a major portion of the helping activity must center on building self-confidence and optimism before learning can take place.

Thus the receiver’s personal characteristics are and important part of the helping relationship. One helping mode, examined in Unit12, is feedback. The individuals tend to become defensive when they feel threatened by the feedback they receive, for example when they are criticized or blamed. Some amount of defensive behaviour in the face of perceived threat is not uncommon, but if the receivers operate primarily from a defensive position, exploration gets blocked, and the objectives of learning and growth get frustrated. This aspect has been examined in details in Unit 10 which elaborates defensive and confronting behaviour.

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Concept of motivation, Theories of motivation, Manager's strategies to motivate

Explain the concept and theories of motivation. As a manager what strategies you are/would adopt to motivate the employees? Describe the organisation you are referring to.

At one time, employees were considered just another input into the production of goods and services. What perhaps changed this way of thinking about employees was research, referred to as the Hawthorne Studies, conducted by Elton Mayo from 1924 to 1932 (Dickson, 1973). This study found employees are not motivated solely by money and employee behavior is linked to their attitudes (Dickson, 1973). The Hawthorne Studies began the human relations approach to management, whereby the needs and motivation of employees become the primary focus of managers (Bedeian, 1993).

Motivation Theories


Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results (Terpstra, 1979). Five major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are Maslow's need-hierarchy theory, Herzberg's two- factor theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Adams' equity theory, and Skinner's reinforcement theory.

According to Maslow, employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943): physiological, safety, social, ego, and self- actualizing. Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees. Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction.
Vroom's theory is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). Rewards may be either positive or negative. The more positive the reward the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward the less likely the employee will be motivated.

Adams' theory states that employees strive for equity between themselves and other workers. Equity is achieved when the ratio of employee outcomes over inputs is equal to other employee outcomes over inputs (Adams, 1965).

Skinner's theory simply states those employees' behaviors that lead to positive outcomes will be repeated and behaviors that lead to negative outcomes will not be repeated (Skinner, 1953). Managers should positively reinforce employee behaviors that lead to positive outcomes. Managers should negatively reinforce employee behavior that leads to negative outcomes.
The Role of Motivation

Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival (Smith, 1994). Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). For example, research suggests that as employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator.

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to describe the importance of certain factors in motivating employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center. Specifically, the study sought to describe the ranked importance of the following ten motivating factors: (a) job security, (b) sympathetic help with personal problems, (c) personal loyalty to employees, (d) interesting work, (e) good working conditions, (f) tactful discipline, (g) good wages, (h) promotions and growth in the organization, (i) feeling of being in on things, and (j) full appreciation of work done. A secondary purpose of the study was to compare the results of this study with the study results from other populations.

Methodology

The research design for this study employed a descriptive survey method. The target population of this study included employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center (centers). The sample size included all 25 employees of the target population. Twenty-three of the 25 employees participated in the survey for a participation rate of 92%. The centers are in Piketon, Ohio.

The mission of the Enterprise Center is to facilitate individual and community leader awareness and provide assistance in preparing and accessing economic opportunities in southern Ohio. The Enterprise Center has three programs: alternatives in agriculture, small business development, and women's business development. The mission of the Piketon Research and Extension Center is to conduct research and educational programs designed to enhance economic development in southern Ohio. The Piketon Research and Extension Center has five programs: aquaculture, community economic development, horticulture, forestry, and soil and water resources.

From a review of literature, a survey questionnaire was developed to collect data for the study (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991; Harpaz, 1990; Kovach, 1987). Data was collected through use of a written questionnaire hand-delivered to participants. Questionnaires were filled out by participants and returned to an intra-departmental mailbox. The questionnaire asked participants to rank the importance of ten factors that motivated them in doing their work: 1=most important . . . 10=least important. Face and content validity for the instrument were established using two administrative and professional employees at The Ohio State University. The instrument was pilot tested with three similarly situated employees within the university. As a result of the pilot test, minor changes in word selection and instructions were made to the questionnaire.
Results and Discussion

The ranked order of motivating factors were: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, (c) full appreciation of work done, (d) job security, (e) good working conditions, (f) promotions and growth in the organization, (g) feeling of being in on things, (h) personal loyalty to employees, (i) tactful discipline, and (j) sympathetic help with personal problems.

A comparison of these results to Maslow's need-hierarchy theory provides some interesting insight into employee motivation. The number one ranked motivator, interesting work, is a self-actualizing factor. The number two ranked motivator, good wages, is a physiological factor. The number three ranked motivator, full appreciation of work done, is an esteem factor. The number four ranked motivator, job security, is a safety factor. Therefore, according to Maslow (1943), if managers wish to address the most important motivational factor of Centers' employees, interesting work, physiological, safety, social, and esteem factors must first be satisfied. If managers wished to address the second most important motivational factor of centers' employees, good pay, increased pay would suffice. Contrary to what Maslow's theory suggests, the range of motivational factors are mixed in this study. Maslow's conclusions that lower level motivational factors must be met before ascending to the next level were not confirmed by this study.
The following example compares the highest ranked motivational factor (interesting work) to Vroom's expectancy theory. Assume that a Centers employee just attended a staff meeting where he/she learned a major emphasis would be placed on seeking additional external program funds. Additionally, employees who are successful in securing funds will be given more opportunities to explore their own research and extension interests (interesting work). Employees who do not secure additional funds will be required to work on research and extension programs identified by the director. The employee realizes that the more research he/she does regarding funding sources and the more proposals he/she writes, the greater the likelihood he/she will receive

external funding.

Because the state legislature has not increased appropriations to the centers for the next two years (funds for independent research and extension projects will be scaled back), the employee sees a direct relationship between performance (obtaining external funds) and rewards (independent research and Extension projects). Further, the employee went to work for the centers, in part, because of the opportunity to conduct independent research and extension projects. The employee will be motivated if he/she is successful in obtaining external funds and given the opportunity to conduct independent research and extension projects. On the other hand, motivation will be diminished if the employee is successful in obtaining external funds and the director denies the request to conduct independent research and Extension projects.

The following example compares the third highest ranked motivational factor (full appreciation of work done) to Adams's equity theory. If an employee at the centers feels that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, as being too low relative to another employee, an inequity may exist and the employee will be dis-motivated. Further, if all the employees at the centers feel that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, inequity may exist. Adams (1965) stated employees will attempt to restore equity through various means, some of which may be counter- productive to organizational goals and objectives. For instance, employees who feel their work is not being appreciated may work less or undervalue the work of other employees.
This final example compares the two highest motivational factors to Herzberg's two-factor theory. The highest ranked motivator, interesting work, is a motivator factor. The second ranked motivator, good wages is a hygiene factor. Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman (1959) stated that to the degree that motivators are present in a job, motivation will occur. The absence of motivators does not lead to dissatisfaction. Further, they stated that to the degree that hygienes are absent from a job, dissatisfaction will occur. When present, hygienes prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. In our example, the lack of interesting work (motivator) for the centers' employees would not lead to dissatisfaction. Paying centers' employees lower wages (hygiene) than what they believe to be fair may lead to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, employees will be motivated when they are doing interesting work and but will not necessarily be motivated by higher pay.

The discussion above, about the ranked importance of motivational factors as related to motivational theory, is only part of the picture. The other part is how these rankings compare with related research. A study of industrial employees, conducted by Kovach (1987), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) full appreciation of work done, and (c) feeling of being in on things. Another study of employees, conducted by Harpaz (1990), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, and (c) job security.

In this study and the two cited above, interesting work ranked as the most important motivational factor. Pay was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors by Kovach (1987), but was ranked second in this research and by Harpaz (1990). Full appreciation of work done was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors by Harpaz (1990), but was ranked second in this research and by Kovach (1987). The discrepancies in these research findings supports the idea that what motivates employees differs given the context in which the employee works. What is clear, however, is that employees rank interesting work as the most important motivational factor.

Implications for Centers and Extension

The ranked importance of motivational factors of employees at the centers provides useful information for the centers' director and employees. Knowing how to use this information in motivating centers' employees is complex. The strategy for motivating centers' employees depends on which motivation theories are used as a reference point. If Hertzberg's theory is followed, management should begin by focusing on pay and job security (hygiene factors) before focusing on interesting work and full appreciation of work done (motivator factors). If Adams' equity theory is followed, management should begin by focusing on areas where there may be perceived inequities (pay and full appreciation of work done) before focusing on interesting work and job security. If Vroom's theory is followed, management should begin by focusing on rewarding (pay and interesting work) employee effort in achieving organizational goals and objectives.
Regardless of which theory is followed, interesting work and employee pay appear to be important links to higher motivation of centers' employees. Options such as job enlargement, job enrichment, promotions, internal and external stipends, monetary, and non-monetary compensation should be considered. Job enlargement can be used (by managers) to make work more interesting (for employees) by increasing the number and variety of activities performed. Job enrichment can used to make work more interesting and increase pay by adding higher level responsibilities to a job and providing monetary compensation (raise or stipend) to employees for accepting this responsibility. These are just two examples of an infinite number of methods to increase motivation of employees at the centers. The key to motivating centers' employees is to know what motivates them and designing a motivation program based on those needs.

The results presented in this paper also have implications for the entire Cooperative Extension Sysyem. The effectiveness of Extension is dependent upon the motivation of its employees (Chesney, 1992; Buford, 1990; Smith, 1990). Knowing what motivates employees and incorporating this knowledge into the reward system will help Extension identify, recruit, employ, train, and retain a productive workforce. Motivating Extension employees requires both managers and employees working together (Buford, 1993). Extension employees must be willing to let managers know what motivates them, and managers must be willing to design reward systems that motivate employees. Survey results, like those presented here, are useful in helping Extension managers determine what motivates employees (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). If properly designed reward systems are not implemented, however, employees will not be motivated.

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